Historical and Theological Context of Byzantine Iconoclasm

Journal Entry- coming to the new world essays

Journal Entry- coming to the new world essays Hello, my name is Thomas Moore. I am writing from the ship that has brought me to the new world. I am seventeen years old and soon I will find work to raise money for a room at an inn (if they have one) but until then, with no change in my pocket and no place to sleep I find my cubby hole of a room to be of greatest comfort. It is the year 1680 and I have presently finished the long journey from my home of England to Jamestown, Virginia. It was a fairly good trip, despite the many months it took, hardly comfortable and never easy, but bearable nonetheless. See I bartered my passage onto the ship with the first mate himself. I offered him my culinary services in exchange for any sort of stay on the ship. See, I was raised by my mother and she insisted on me knowing how to take care of myself, including doing my own cooking, so I have become quite a chef. And as this is a ship full of men, the first mate reluctantly took me aboard, casting me to an empty, abandoned room below deck. The three men I share this room with have become my closest company over the past months, though I couldnt call then my friends. We have decided that our sleeping quarters must have once been a bathroom for there is no other explanation for the smell. As for Virginia! What an incredible place. Perhaps it is because of my surroundings in England, or maybe because it is springtime, but I dont believe I have ever seen a more beautiful place. It is so uninhabited and primitive. And to think there could be gold lurking under every rock! That is the real reason I came to Virginia, gold and riches, although it was not by choice that I came. My father has fallen ill after losing his job and our only source of income. Now my mother is finding it difficult to pay the bills for the two room apartment we call home. It was supposed to be a temporary place but I doubt we will ever leave, after three years of living there. And we would like to conti...

Consumer Buying Behaviour Literature review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Consumer Buying Behaviour - Literature review Example Therefore, this assumption challenges the thought of an international consumer culture with homogenised consumer sectors as well as customs, by declaring that those expenditure practices are shaped by the local outlines within which they take place (Bond et al, 2004, p. 33). Youth forms one of the biggest markets around the globe for cell phones, with more than 201 million subscribers between 18 to 25 years of age. Cell phones have appeared as signs of customer revolution, turning into a necessary product and having ‘ubiquitous’ part in the expanding retail landscape. The term customer revolution has as well been extensively used to represent the increase in consumption of cell phones among youth (Munusamy et al, 2010, p. 22). Two distinct attitudes to brands that describe the selection of a mobile phone are by â€Å"attitudes towards the cell phone brand name on one hand and attitudes towards the network on the other† (Usunier & Lee, 2009, p. 372). Whereas cost a nd constancy of service were found to control selections between network suppliers, selections between cell phone brands were influenced by new technology aspects, for instance, ‘memory’ and ‘SMS options’, more than its size.... The diffusion pace is said to rely mainly on manufacturing costs (Perrey & Spillecke, 2011, p. 211). Cost and properties were considered as the most essential causes influencing the choice to buy modern cell phone model among the respondents as exhibited. In accordance with the survey close to 90 percent and more than 95 percent, for cost and properties respectively, believed that cost and properties had influenced their selection procedure at least relatively much. â€Å"Cost might have controlled the decision making in the sample more than it does for the whole population, as the average net income in the target groups was relatively low† (Hackley, 2010, p. 192). Company’s order or sales representative’s suggestions were considered as the least significant reasons. The selection of the operator was influenced mainly by cost and audibility: more or less 93 percent thought that price the operator asks had influenced their selection at least relatively much. Addit ionally, audibility was the next most significant cause: 92 percent thought that audibility had influenced their choice at least relatively much (Soder & Wiedmaier, 2006, p. 99). Other causes of considerable significance were properties, companions' selection of the operator, contract form and free calls. Sales representative and employer were the least significant influencing the selection of one's operator. Majority of the popular services used these days are ‘logos’ and ‘ringing tones’. â€Å"More than 80 percent of the respondents had ordered logos and tones for their mobile devices. These two were chased by cell phone bill inquiry - 71 percent had ordered - and call

What do You Understand by Economic Protectionism Essay

What do You Understand by Economic Protectionism - Essay Example Free trade is known to be more favorable to consumers and hence such protectionism hurts the consumers more (Lee, 2001). The reason for this is mostly consumers have to buy low quality goods at a higher price. The quality of goods obtained at this is far more inferior. They even have to pay higher taxes in order to help the government bear the burden of subsidies. They are of left with little choices since foreign products are lowered or eliminated by imposing restrictions. The case is worst when it comes to essential commodities like food grains, salt, and sugar. The political argument offered for such protection is to have a ‘fair’ trade. This means either the government is trying to make the domestic industries more competitive in international market or it wants to strike a balance between importing goods and maintaining domestic production. Although it is argued that producers are favored with this policy of protection but at the same time they are losing consumers on account of this. Not all industries and firms are receiving protection and subsidies. The ones deprived of such facilities are again diversely hit as they try to increase productivity (Lee, 2001). Economists have also favored free trade than such protection because trade carries the advantages of increased productivity and employment. However real life case examples will help to point out the implications of such protection. Japanese protection for rice production can be cited as an example. Japanese people had been worshipping rice as god and had been fighting to protect rice production. Japanese government has offered subsidies to rice farmers (Barlett, 2006). This and prevention of foreign rice imports has been adopted as strategies for protection. Previously heavy snowing has distorted rice...These policies are adopted when the country is giving more importance to development of domestic industries rather than engaging in free trade. Economic Protectionism has tremendous infl uence on consumption as well as production. But the impact is more on the production side. Sometimes protection is offered to some scale industries who hardly show any incentive to grow and just wasting the opportunities and facilities offered by the government. Neither they have any incentive to innovate and produce better quality products. The country suffers a loss of revenue that it could have earned from trade. This is because other countries retaliate in a similar manner by imposing restrictions on the country’s exports. Government is worse off by losing revenue from trade. In some cases the government also offers subsidies to the industries for growth which is helpful only if the industry has the potential to compete with its foreign counterparts. Moreover urban development demands more landscapes for which they are concentrating on acquisition of rice fields. This will make farmers lose their livelihood. So the government has stepped forward to protect rice farming. It restricts cheap imported rice from entering Japan and at the same time helps the farmers with a support price. Hence rice farming protection can be considered justified here.

Court Brief 2 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Court Brief 2 - Assignment Example Is officer Brosseau entitled to qualified immunity for the use of excessive force? The Court of Appeals decided for Brosseau finding that she was entitled to qualified immunity. There was a â€Å"hazy border between excessive and acceptable force† in Brosseau’s actions for which, she was entitled to qualified immunity. Officer Brosseau violated the Fourth Amendment, but she had the cause according to which, â€Å"the suspect poses a threat of serious physical harm, either to the officer or to the others, it is not constitutionally unreasonable to prevent escape by using deadly force† after which, she was not regarded as a violator of law. According to Haugen, Brosseau violated his federal constitutional rights. Glen Tamburello reported officer Brosseau about some stolen tools from his shop and blamed Kenneth Haugen, his former crime partner. Later on, Brosseau came to know that for Haugen’s felony, there was no-bail arrest warrant against him for charges of drugs and other offences. When Haugen was in his mother’s driveway, Tamburello accompanied with Matt Attwood drove to Haugen, where they had a fight after which, a neighbor called 911. Brosseau reached the scene and due to her arrival, Haugen got a chance to get away and hide in a neighbor’s backyard. On a radioed report, Brosseau reached there and found Haugen. Haugen tried to escape by jumping into his jeep. Brosseau doubted him trying to get some weapon. However, he was searching for the keys to drive away. Brosseau ordered Haugen multiple times to get out of the vehicle and also fired several times on the driver’s side window with her hand gun. She even tried to get the keys through the side window and hi t Haugen with the barrel and butt of her gun, but ignoring all her commands and attempts, Haugen started and drove the jeep a little after which, Brosseau shot in his back considering the life of those officers in danger who were on foot. While deciding for

Types of Logistics Strategies

Types of Logistics Strategies Logistics Logistics is the art and science of managing and controlling the flow of goods, energy, information and other resources like products, services, and people, from the source of production to the marketplace. It is difficult to accomplish any marketing or manufacturing without logistical support. It involves the integration of information, transportation, inventory, warehousing, material handling, and packaging. The operating responsibility of logistics is the geographical repositioning of raw materials, work in process, and finished inventories where required at the lowest cost possible. 1- Overwiew of Logistics The word of logistics originates from the ancient Greek logos (), which means ratio, word, calculation, reason, speech, oration. Logistics as a concept is considered to evolve from the militarys need to supply themselves as they moved from their base to a forward position. In ancient Greek, Roman and Byzantine empires, there were military officers with the title Logistikas who were responsible for financial and supply distribution matters. The Oxford English dictionary defines logistics as: The branch of military science having to do with procuring, maintaining and transporting material, personnel and facilities.Another dictionary definition is: The time related positioning of resources. As such, logistics is commonly seen as a branch of engineering which creates people systems rather than machine systems. Military logistics In military logistics, experts manage how and when to move resources to the places they are needed. In military science, maintaining ones supply lines while disrupting those of the enemy is a crucial-some would say the most crucial-element of military strategy, since an armed force without food, fuel and ammunition is defenseless. The Iraq war was a dramatic example of the importance of logistics. It had become very necessary for the US and its allies to move huge amounts of men, materials and equipment over great distances. Led by Lieutenant General William Pagonis, Logistics was successfully used for this movement. The defeat of the British in the American War of Independence, and the defeat of Rommel in World War II, have been largely attributed to logistical failure. The historical leaders Hannibal Barca and Alexander the Great are considered to have been logistical geniuses. 1. Logistics Management Logistics Management is that part of the supply chain which plans, implements and controls the efficient, effective forward and reverse flow and storage of goods, services and related information between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet customers requirements. Business logistics Logistics as a business concept evolved only in the 1950s. This was mainly due to the increasing complexity of supplying ones business with materials and shipping out products in an increasingly globalized supply chain, calling for experts in the field who are called Supply Chain Logisticians. This can be defined as having the right item in the right quantity at the right time for the right price and is the science of process and incorporates all industry sectors. The goal of logistic work is to manage the fruition of project life cycles, supply chains and resultant efficiencies. In business, logistics may have either internal focus(inbound logistics), or external focus (outbound logistics) covering the flow and storage of materials from point of origin to point of consumption (see supply chain management). The main functions of a logistics manager include Inventory Management, purchasing, transport, warehousing, and the organizing and planning of these activities. Logistics managers combine a general knowledge of each of these functions so that there is a coordination of resources in an organization. There are two fundamentally different forms of logistics. One optimizes a steady flow of material through a network of transport links and storage nodes. The other coordinates a sequence of resources to carry out some project. Logistics as a concept is considered to evolve from the militarys need to supply themselves as they moved from their base to a forward position. In ancient Greek, Roman and Byzantine empires, there were military officers with the title Log istikas who were responsible for financial and supply distribution matters. Production logistics The term is used for describing logistic processes within an industry. The purpose of production logistics is to ensure that each machine and workstation is being fed with the right product in the right quantity and quality at the right point in time. The issue is not the transportation itself, but to streamline and control the flow through the value adding processes and eliminate non-value adding ones. Production logistics can be applied in existing as well as new plants. Manufacturing in an existing plant is a constantly changing process. Machines are exchanged and new ones added, which gives the opportunity to improve the production logistics system accordingly. Production logistics provides the means to achieve customer response and capital efficiency 2. Commercial vehicle operation Commercial Vehicle Operations is an application of Intelligent Transportation Systems for trucks. A typical system would be purchased by the managers of a trucking company. It would have a satellite navigation system, a small computer and a digital radio in each truck. Every fifteen minutes the computer transmits where the truck has been. The digital radio service forwards the data to the central office of the trucking company. A computer system in the central office manages the fleet in real time under control of a team of dispatchers. In this way, the central office knows where its trucks are. The company tracks individual loads by using barcoded containers and pallets to track loads combined into a larger container. To minimize handling-expense, damage and waste of vehicle capacity, optimal-sized pallets are often constructed at distribution points to go to particular destinations. A good load-tracking system will help deliver more than 95% of its loads via truck, on planned schedules. If a truck gets off its route, or is delayed, the truck can be diverted to a better route, or urgent loads that are likely to be late can be diverted to air freight. This allows a trucking company to deliver a true premium service at only slightly higher cost. The best proprietary systems, such as the one operated by FedEx, achieve better than 99.999% on-time delivery. Load-tracking systems use queuing theory, linear programming and minimum spanning tree logic to predict and improve arrival times. The exact means of combining these are usually secret recipes deeply hidden in the software. The basic scheme is that hypothetical routes are constructed by combining road segments, and then poor ones are eliminated using linear programming. The controlled routes allow a truck to avoid heavy traffic caused by rush-hour, accidents or road-work. Increasingly, governments are providing digital notification when roadways are known to have reduced capacity. A good system lets the computer, dispatcher and driver collaborate on finding a good route, or a method to move the load. One special value is that the computer can automatically eliminate routes over roads that cannot take the weight of the truck, or that have overhead obstructions. Usually, the drivers log into the system. The system helps remind a driver to rest. Rested drivers operate the truck more skillfully and safely. When these systems were first introduced, some drivers resisted them, viewing them as a way for management to spy on the driver. A well-managed intelligent transportation system provides drivers with huge amounts of help. It gives them a view of their own load and the network of roadways. Components of CVO include: Fleet Administration Freight Administration Electronic Clearance Commercial Vehicle Administrative Processes International Border Crossing Clearance Weigh-In-Motion (WIM) Roadside CVO Safety On-Board Safety Monitoring CVO Fleet Maintenance Hazardous Material Planning and Incident Response Freight In-Transit Monitoring Freight Terminal Management 3. CONTAINERIZATION Containerization is a system of intermodal freight transport cargo transport using standard ISO containers (known as Shipping Containers or Isotainers) that can be loaded and sealed intact onto container ships, railroad cars, planes, and trucks. Containerization is also the term given to the process of determining the best carton, box or pallet to be used to ship a single item or number of items. ISO Container dimensions and payloads There are five common standard lengths, 20-ft (6.1 m), 40-ft (12.2 m), 45-ft (13.7 m), 48-ft (14.6 m), and 53-ft (16.2 m). United States domestic standard containers are generally 48-ft and 53-ft (rail and truck). Container capacity is measured in twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU, or sometimes teu). A twenty-foot equivalent unit is a measure of containerized cargo capacity equal to one standard 20 ft (length) Ãâ€" 8 ft (width) Ãâ€" 8 ft 6 in (height) container. In metric units this is 6.10 m (length) Ãâ€" 2.44 m (width) Ãâ€" 2.59 m (height), or approximately 38.5 m ³. These sell at about US$2,500 in China, the biggest manufacturer. Most containers today are of the 40-ft (12.2 m) variety and are known as 40-foot containers. This is equivalent to 2 TEU. 45-foot (13.7 m) containers are also designated 2 TEU. Two TEU are equivalent to one forty-foot equivalent unit (FEU). High cube containers have a height of 9 ft 6 in (2.9m), while half-height containers, used for heavy loads, have a height of 4 ft 3 in (1.3 m). When converting containers to TEUs, the height of the containers typically is not considered. The use of US measurements to describe container size (TEU, FEU) despite the fact the rest of the world uses the metric system reflects the fact that US shipping companies played a major part in the development of containers. The overwhelming need to have a standard size for containers, in order that they fit all ships, cranes, and trucks, and the length of time that the current container sizes have been in use, makes changing to an even metric size impractical. The maximum gross mass for a 20-ft dry cargo container is 24,000 kg, and for a 40-ft, (inc. the 2.87 m (9 ft 5 in) high cube container), it is 30,480 kg. Allowing for the tare mass of the container, the maximum payload mass is there reduced to approx. 21,600 kg for 20-ft, and 26,500 kg for 40-ft containers. Shipping Container History A container ship being loaded by a portainer crane in Copenhagen Harbour. Twistlocks which capture and constrain containers. Forklifts designed to handle containers have similar devices. A container freight train in the UK. Containers produced a huge reduction in port handling costs, contributing significantly to lower freight charges and, in turn, boosting trade flows. Almost every manufactured product humans consume spends some time in a container. Containerization is an important element of the innovations in logistics that revolutionized freight handling in the 20th century. Efforts to ship cargo in containers date to the 19th century. By the 1920s, railroads on several continents were carrying containers that could be transferred to trucks or ships, but these containers were invariably small by todays standards. From 1926 to 1947, the Chicago North Shore and Milwaukee Railway carried motor carrier vehicles and shippers vehicles loaded on flatcars between Milwaukee, Wisconsin and Chicago, Illinois. Beginning in 1929, Seatrain Lines carried railroad boxcars on its sea vessels to transport goods between New York and Cuba. In the mid-1930s, the Chicago Great Western Railway and then the New Haven Railroad began piggy-back service (transporting highway freight trailers on flatcars) limited to their own railroads. By 1953, the CBQ, the Chicago and Eastern Illinois and the Southern Pacific railroads had joined the innovation. Most cars were surplus flatcars equipped with new decks. By 1955, an additional 25 railroads had begun some form of piggy-back trailer s ervice. The first vessels purpose-built to carry containers began operation in Denmark in 1951. Ships began carrying containers between Seattle and Alaska in 1951. The worlds first truly intermodal container system used purpose-built container ship the Clifford J. Rodgers built in Montreal in 1955 and owned by the White Pass and Yukon Route. Its first trip carried 600 containers between North Vancouver, British Columbia and Skagway, Alaska on November 26, 1955; in Skagway, the containers were unloaded to purpose-built railroad cars for transport north to the Yukon, in the first intermodal service using trucks, ships and railroad cars. Southbound containers were loaded by shippers in the Yukon, moved by truck, rail, ship and truck to their consignees, without opening. This first intermodal system operated from November 1955 for many years. A converted container used as an office at a building site. The widespread use of ISO standard containers has driven modifications in other freight-moving standards, gradually forcing removable truck bodies or swap bodies into the standard sizes and shapes (though without the strength needed to be stacked), and changing completely the worldwide use of freight pallets that fit into ISO containers or into commercial vehicles. Improved cargo security is also an important benefit of containerization. The cargo is not visible to the casual viewer and thus is less likely to be stolen and the doors of the containers are generally sealed so that tampering is more evident. This has reduced the falling off the truck syndrome that long plagued the shipping industry. Use of the same basic sizes of containers across the globe has lessened the problems caused by incompatible rail gauge sizes in different countries. The majority of the rail networks in the world operate on a 1,435mm (4ft 8 ½in) gauge track known as standard gauge but many countries like Russia, Finland and Spain use broader gauges while other many countries in Africa and South America use narrower gauges on their networks. The use of container trains in all these countries makes trans-shipment between different gauge trains easier, with automatic or semi-automatic equipment. Some of the largest global companies containerizing containers today are Patrick Global Shipping, Bowen Exports and Theiler Sons Goods, LLC. Loss at sea of ISO Containers Containers occasionally fall from the ships that carry them, something that occurs an estimated 2,000 to 10,000 times each year. For instance, on November 30, 2006, a container washed ashore on the Outer Banks of North Carolina, along with thousands of bags of its cargo of tortilla chips. Containers lost at sea do not necessarily sink, but seldom float very high out of the water, making them a shipping hazard that is difficult to detect. Freight from lost containers has provided oceanographers with unexpected opportunities to track global ocean currents. Double-stack containerization A Railroad car with a 20 tank container and a conventional 20 container. Most flatcars cannot carry more than one standard 40 foot container, but if the rail line has been built with sufficient vertical clearance, a well car can accept a container and still leave enough clearance for another container on top. This usually precludes operation of double-stacked wagons on lines with overhead electric wiring (exception: Betuweroute). Double stacking has been used in North America since American President Lines introduced this double stack principle under the name of Stacktrain rail service in 1984. It saved shippers money and now accounts for almost 70 percent of intermodal freight transport shipments in the United States, in part due to the generous vertical clearances used by US railroads ISO Container types Various container types are available for different needs General purpose dry van for boxes, cartons, cases, sacks, bales, pallets, drums in standard, high or half height High cube palletwide containers for europallet compatibility Temperature controlled from -25 °c to +25 °c reefer Open top bulktainers for bulk minerals, heavy machinery Open side for loading oversize pallet Flushfolding flat-rack containers for heavy and bulky semi-finished goods, out of gauge cargo Platform or bolster for barrels and drums, crates, cable drums, out of gauge cargo, machinery, and processed timber Ventilated containers for organic products requiring ventilation Tank containers for bulk liquids and dangerous goods Rolling floor for difficult to handle cargo Determining the best carton, box or pallet While the creation of the best container for shipping of newly created product is called Containerization, the term also applies to determining the right box and the best placement inside that box in order fulfillment. This may be planned by software modules in a warehouse management system. This optimization software calculates the best spatial position of each item withing such constraints as stackability and crush resistance 4. CROSS DOCKING Cross-docking is a practice in logistics of unloading materials from an incoming semi-trailer truck or rail car and loading these materials in outbound trailers or rail cars, with little or no storage in between. This may be done to change type of conveyance, or to sort material intended for different destinations, or to combine material from different origins. Cross docking is used to decrease inventory storage by streamlining the flow between the supplier and the manufacturer. Typical applications Hub and spoke arrangements, where materials are brought in to one central location and then sorted for delivery to a variety of destinations Consolidation arrangements, where a variety of smaller shipments are combined into one larger shipment for economy of transport Deconsolidation arrangements, where large shipments (e.g. railcar lots) are broken down into smaller lots for ease of delivery. Factors influencing the use of cross-docks Customer and supplier geography particularly when a single corporate customer has many multiple branches or using points Freight costs for the commodities being transported Cost of inventory in transit Complexity of loads Handling methods Logistics software integration between supplier(s), vendor, and shipper 5 .DISTRIBUTION Distribution is one of the four aspects of marketing. A distributor is the middleman between the manufacturer and retailer. After a product is manufactured it is typically shipped (and usually sold) to a distributor. The distributor then sells the product to retailers or customers. The other three parts of the marketing mix are product management, pricing, and promotion. Traditionally, distribution has been seen as dealing with logistics: how to get the product or service to the customer. It must answer questions such as: Should the product be sold through a retailer? Should the product be distributed through wholesale? Should multi-level marketing channels be used? How long should the channel be (how many members)? Where should the product or service be available? When should the product or service be available? Should distribution be exclusive, selective or extensive? Who should control the channel (referred to as the channel captain)? Should channel relationships be informal or contractual? Should channel members share advertising (referred to as co-op ads)? Should electronic methods of distribution be used? Are there physical distribution and logistical issues to deal with? What will it cost to keep an inventory of products on store shelves and in channel warehouses (referred to as filling the pipeline)? The distribution channel Channels A number of alternate channels of distribution may be available: Selling direct, such as via mail order, Internet and telephone sales Agent, who typically sells direct on behalf of the producer Distributor (also called wholesaler), who sells to retailers Retailer (also called dealer), who sells to end customers Advertisement typically used for consumption goods Distribution channels may not be restricted to physical products alone. They may be just as important for moving a service from producer to consumer in certain sectors, since both direct and indirect channels may be used. Hotels, for example, may sell their services (typically rooms) directly or through travel agents, tour operators, airlines, tourist boards, centralized reservation systems, etc. There have also been some innovations in the distribution of services. For example, there has been an increase in franchising and in rental services the latter offering anything from televisions through tools. There has also been some evidence of service integration, with services linking together, particularly in the travel and tourism sectors. For example, links now exist between airlines, hotels and car rental services. In addition, there has been a significant increase in retail outlets for the service sector. Outlets such as estate agencies and building society offices are crowding out traditional grocers from major shopping areas.. Channel members Distribution channels can thus have a number of levels. Kotler defined the simplest level, that of direct contact with no intermediaries involved, as the zero-level channel. The next level, the one-level channel, features just one intermediary; in consumer goods a retailer, for industrial goods a distributor, say. In small markets (such as small countries) it is practical to reach the whole market using just one- and zero-level channels. In large markets (such as larger countries) a second level, a wholesaler for example, is now mainly used to extend distribution to the large number of small, neighbourhood retailers In Japan the chain of distribution is often complex and further levels are used, even for the simplest . Channel structure To the various `levels of distribution, which they refer to as the `channel length, Lancaster and Massingham also added another structural element, the relationship between its members: Conventional or free-flow This is the usual, widely recognized, channel with a range of `middle-men passing the goods on to the end-user. Single transaction A temporary `channel may be set up for one transaction; for example, the sale of property or a specific civil engineering project. This does not share many characteristics with other channel transactions, each one being unique. Vertical marketing system (VMS) In this form, the elements of distribution are integrated. The internal market Many of the marketing principles and techniques which are applied to the external customers of an organization can be just as effectively applied to each subsidiarys, or each departments, internal customers. In some parts of certain organizations this may in fact be formalized, as goods are transferred between separate parts of the organization at a `transfer price. To all intents and purposes, with the possible exception of the pricing mechanism itself, this process can and should be viewed as a normal buyer-seller relationship. Less obvious, but just as practical, is the use of `marketing by service and administrative departments; to optimize their contribution to their `customers (the rest of the organization in general, and those parts of it which deal directly with them in particular). In all of this, the lessons of the non-profit organizations, in dealing with their clients, offer a very useful parallel. Channel Decisions Channel strategy Product (or service)CostConsumer location Channel management The channel decision is very important. In theory at least, there is a form of trade-off: the cost of using intermediaries to achieve wider distribution is supposedly lower. Indeed, most consumer goods manufacturers could never justify the cost of selling direct to their consumers, except by mail order. In practice, if the producer is large enough, the use of intermediaries (particularly at the agent and wholesaler level) can sometimes cost more than going direct. Many of the theoretical arguments about channels therefore revolve around cost. On the other hand, most of the practical decisions are concerned with control of the consumer. The small company has no alternative but to use intermediaries, often several layers of them, but large companies do have the choice. However, many suppliers seem to assume that once their product has been sold into the channel, into the beginning of the distribution chain, their job is finished. Yet that distribution chain is merely assuming a part of the suppliers responsibility; and, if he has any aspirations to be market-oriented, his job should really be extended to managing, albeit very indirectly, all the processes involved in that chain, until the product or service arrives with the end-user. This may involve a number of decisions on the part of the supplier: Channel membership Channel motivation Monitoring and managing channels Channel membership Intensive distribution Where the majority of resellers stock the `product (with convenience products, for example, and particularly the brand leaders in consumer goods markets) price competition may be evident. Selective distribution This is the normal pattern (in both consumer and industrial markets) where `suitable resellers stock the product. Exclusive distribution Only specially selected resellers (typically only one per geographical area) are allowed to sell the `product. Channel motivation It is difficult enough to motivate direct employees to provide the necessary sales and service support. Motivating the owners and employees of the independent organizations in a distribution chain requires even greater effort. There are many devices for achieving such motivation. Perhaps the most usual is `bribery: the supplier offers a better margin, to tempt the owners in the channel to push the product rather than its competitors; or a competition is offered to the distributors sales personnel, so that they are tempted to push the product. At the other end of the spectrum is the almost symbiotic relationship that the all too rare supplier in the computer field develops with its agents; where the agents personnel, support as well as sales, are trained to almost the same standard as the suppliers own staff. Monitoring and managing channels In much the same way that the organizations own sales and distribution activities need to be monitored and managed, so will those of the distribution chain. In practice, of course, many organizations use a mix of different channels; in particular, they may complement a direct salesforce, calling on the larger accounts, with agents, covering the smaller customers and prospects. Vertical marketing This relatively recent development integrates the channel with the original supplier producer, wholesalers and retailers working in one unified system. This may arise because one member of the chain owns the other elements (often called `corporate systems integration); a supplier owning its own retail outlets, this being forward integration. It is perhaps more likely that a retailer will own its own suppliers, this being backward integration. (For example, MFI, the furniture retailer, owns Hygena which makes its kitchen and bedroom units.) The integration can also be by franchise (such as that offered by McDonalds hamburgers and Benetton clothes) or simple co-operation (in the way that Marks Spencer co-operates with its suppliers). Alternative approaches are `contractual systems, often led by a wholesale or retail co-operative, and `administered marketing systems where one (dominant) member of the distribution chain uses its position to co-ordinate the other members activities. This has traditionally been the form led by manufacturers. The intention of vertical marketing is to give all those involved (and particularly the supplier at one end, and the retailer at the other) control over the distribution chain. This removes one set of variables from the marketing equations. Other research indicates that vertical integration is a strategy which is best pursued at the mature stage of the market (or product). At earlier stages it can actually reduce profits. It is arguable that it also diverts attention from the real business of the organization. Suppliers rarely excel in retail operations and, in theory, retailers should focus on their sales outlets rather than on manufacturing facilities ( Marks Spencer, for example, very deliberately provides considerable amounts of technical assistance to its suppliers, but does not own them). Horizontal marketing A rather less frequent example of new approaches to channels is where two or more non-competing organizations agree on a joint venture a joint marketing operation because it is beyond the capacity of each individual organization alone. In general, this is less likely to revolve around marketing synergy. LOGISTICS IN FOOD DISTRIBUTION Food distribution, a method of distributing (or transporting) food from one place to another, is a very important factor in public nutrition. Where it breaks down, famine, malnutrition or illness can occur. During some periods of Ancient Rome, food distribution occurred with the policy of giving free bread to its citizens under the provision of a common good. There are three main components of food distribution: Transport infrastructure, such as roads, vehicles, rail transport, airports, and ports. Food handling technology and regulation, such as refrigeration, and storage, warehousing. Adequate source and supply logistics, based on demand and need. Information logistics In general, it is exactly logistics of information. The field of information logistics aims at developing concepts, technologies and applications for need-oriented information supply. Information-on-demand services are a typical application area for information logistics, as they have to fulfil user needs with respect to content, location, time and quality Information Logistics consists of two words information and logistics. Information can mean a lot of things, but usually is text (syntax with a semantic meaning) and logistics which is the transportation of sth from point A to point B. In a simplified sense is a newsletter information logistics, also an e-mail or even the ordinary mail you receive. Information logistics is concerned with the supply of information to individuals and Types of Logistics Strategies Types of Logistics Strategies Logistics Logistics is the art and science of managing and controlling the flow of goods, energy, information and other resources like products, services, and people, from the source of production to the marketplace. It is difficult to accomplish any marketing or manufacturing without logistical support. It involves the integration of information, transportation, inventory, warehousing, material handling, and packaging. The operating responsibility of logistics is the geographical repositioning of raw materials, work in process, and finished inventories where required at the lowest cost possible. 1- Overwiew of Logistics The word of logistics originates from the ancient Greek logos (), which means ratio, word, calculation, reason, speech, oration. Logistics as a concept is considered to evolve from the militarys need to supply themselves as they moved from their base to a forward position. In ancient Greek, Roman and Byzantine empires, there were military officers with the title Logistikas who were responsible for financial and supply distribution matters. The Oxford English dictionary defines logistics as: The branch of military science having to do with procuring, maintaining and transporting material, personnel and facilities.Another dictionary definition is: The time related positioning of resources. As such, logistics is commonly seen as a branch of engineering which creates people systems rather than machine systems. Military logistics In military logistics, experts manage how and when to move resources to the places they are needed. In military science, maintaining ones supply lines while disrupting those of the enemy is a crucial-some would say the most crucial-element of military strategy, since an armed force without food, fuel and ammunition is defenseless. The Iraq war was a dramatic example of the importance of logistics. It had become very necessary for the US and its allies to move huge amounts of men, materials and equipment over great distances. Led by Lieutenant General William Pagonis, Logistics was successfully used for this movement. The defeat of the British in the American War of Independence, and the defeat of Rommel in World War II, have been largely attributed to logistical failure. The historical leaders Hannibal Barca and Alexander the Great are considered to have been logistical geniuses. 1. Logistics Management Logistics Management is that part of the supply chain which plans, implements and controls the efficient, effective forward and reverse flow and storage of goods, services and related information between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet customers requirements. Business logistics Logistics as a business concept evolved only in the 1950s. This was mainly due to the increasing complexity of supplying ones business with materials and shipping out products in an increasingly globalized supply chain, calling for experts in the field who are called Supply Chain Logisticians. This can be defined as having the right item in the right quantity at the right time for the right price and is the science of process and incorporates all industry sectors. The goal of logistic work is to manage the fruition of project life cycles, supply chains and resultant efficiencies. In business, logistics may have either internal focus(inbound logistics), or external focus (outbound logistics) covering the flow and storage of materials from point of origin to point of consumption (see supply chain management). The main functions of a logistics manager include Inventory Management, purchasing, transport, warehousing, and the organizing and planning of these activities. Logistics managers combine a general knowledge of each of these functions so that there is a coordination of resources in an organization. There are two fundamentally different forms of logistics. One optimizes a steady flow of material through a network of transport links and storage nodes. The other coordinates a sequence of resources to carry out some project. Logistics as a concept is considered to evolve from the militarys need to supply themselves as they moved from their base to a forward position. In ancient Greek, Roman and Byzantine empires, there were military officers with the title Log istikas who were responsible for financial and supply distribution matters. Production logistics The term is used for describing logistic processes within an industry. The purpose of production logistics is to ensure that each machine and workstation is being fed with the right product in the right quantity and quality at the right point in time. The issue is not the transportation itself, but to streamline and control the flow through the value adding processes and eliminate non-value adding ones. Production logistics can be applied in existing as well as new plants. Manufacturing in an existing plant is a constantly changing process. Machines are exchanged and new ones added, which gives the opportunity to improve the production logistics system accordingly. Production logistics provides the means to achieve customer response and capital efficiency 2. Commercial vehicle operation Commercial Vehicle Operations is an application of Intelligent Transportation Systems for trucks. A typical system would be purchased by the managers of a trucking company. It would have a satellite navigation system, a small computer and a digital radio in each truck. Every fifteen minutes the computer transmits where the truck has been. The digital radio service forwards the data to the central office of the trucking company. A computer system in the central office manages the fleet in real time under control of a team of dispatchers. In this way, the central office knows where its trucks are. The company tracks individual loads by using barcoded containers and pallets to track loads combined into a larger container. To minimize handling-expense, damage and waste of vehicle capacity, optimal-sized pallets are often constructed at distribution points to go to particular destinations. A good load-tracking system will help deliver more than 95% of its loads via truck, on planned schedules. If a truck gets off its route, or is delayed, the truck can be diverted to a better route, or urgent loads that are likely to be late can be diverted to air freight. This allows a trucking company to deliver a true premium service at only slightly higher cost. The best proprietary systems, such as the one operated by FedEx, achieve better than 99.999% on-time delivery. Load-tracking systems use queuing theory, linear programming and minimum spanning tree logic to predict and improve arrival times. The exact means of combining these are usually secret recipes deeply hidden in the software. The basic scheme is that hypothetical routes are constructed by combining road segments, and then poor ones are eliminated using linear programming. The controlled routes allow a truck to avoid heavy traffic caused by rush-hour, accidents or road-work. Increasingly, governments are providing digital notification when roadways are known to have reduced capacity. A good system lets the computer, dispatcher and driver collaborate on finding a good route, or a method to move the load. One special value is that the computer can automatically eliminate routes over roads that cannot take the weight of the truck, or that have overhead obstructions. Usually, the drivers log into the system. The system helps remind a driver to rest. Rested drivers operate the truck more skillfully and safely. When these systems were first introduced, some drivers resisted them, viewing them as a way for management to spy on the driver. A well-managed intelligent transportation system provides drivers with huge amounts of help. It gives them a view of their own load and the network of roadways. Components of CVO include: Fleet Administration Freight Administration Electronic Clearance Commercial Vehicle Administrative Processes International Border Crossing Clearance Weigh-In-Motion (WIM) Roadside CVO Safety On-Board Safety Monitoring CVO Fleet Maintenance Hazardous Material Planning and Incident Response Freight In-Transit Monitoring Freight Terminal Management 3. CONTAINERIZATION Containerization is a system of intermodal freight transport cargo transport using standard ISO containers (known as Shipping Containers or Isotainers) that can be loaded and sealed intact onto container ships, railroad cars, planes, and trucks. Containerization is also the term given to the process of determining the best carton, box or pallet to be used to ship a single item or number of items. ISO Container dimensions and payloads There are five common standard lengths, 20-ft (6.1 m), 40-ft (12.2 m), 45-ft (13.7 m), 48-ft (14.6 m), and 53-ft (16.2 m). United States domestic standard containers are generally 48-ft and 53-ft (rail and truck). Container capacity is measured in twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU, or sometimes teu). A twenty-foot equivalent unit is a measure of containerized cargo capacity equal to one standard 20 ft (length) Ãâ€" 8 ft (width) Ãâ€" 8 ft 6 in (height) container. In metric units this is 6.10 m (length) Ãâ€" 2.44 m (width) Ãâ€" 2.59 m (height), or approximately 38.5 m ³. These sell at about US$2,500 in China, the biggest manufacturer. Most containers today are of the 40-ft (12.2 m) variety and are known as 40-foot containers. This is equivalent to 2 TEU. 45-foot (13.7 m) containers are also designated 2 TEU. Two TEU are equivalent to one forty-foot equivalent unit (FEU). High cube containers have a height of 9 ft 6 in (2.9m), while half-height containers, used for heavy loads, have a height of 4 ft 3 in (1.3 m). When converting containers to TEUs, the height of the containers typically is not considered. The use of US measurements to describe container size (TEU, FEU) despite the fact the rest of the world uses the metric system reflects the fact that US shipping companies played a major part in the development of containers. The overwhelming need to have a standard size for containers, in order that they fit all ships, cranes, and trucks, and the length of time that the current container sizes have been in use, makes changing to an even metric size impractical. The maximum gross mass for a 20-ft dry cargo container is 24,000 kg, and for a 40-ft, (inc. the 2.87 m (9 ft 5 in) high cube container), it is 30,480 kg. Allowing for the tare mass of the container, the maximum payload mass is there reduced to approx. 21,600 kg for 20-ft, and 26,500 kg for 40-ft containers. Shipping Container History A container ship being loaded by a portainer crane in Copenhagen Harbour. Twistlocks which capture and constrain containers. Forklifts designed to handle containers have similar devices. A container freight train in the UK. Containers produced a huge reduction in port handling costs, contributing significantly to lower freight charges and, in turn, boosting trade flows. Almost every manufactured product humans consume spends some time in a container. Containerization is an important element of the innovations in logistics that revolutionized freight handling in the 20th century. Efforts to ship cargo in containers date to the 19th century. By the 1920s, railroads on several continents were carrying containers that could be transferred to trucks or ships, but these containers were invariably small by todays standards. From 1926 to 1947, the Chicago North Shore and Milwaukee Railway carried motor carrier vehicles and shippers vehicles loaded on flatcars between Milwaukee, Wisconsin and Chicago, Illinois. Beginning in 1929, Seatrain Lines carried railroad boxcars on its sea vessels to transport goods between New York and Cuba. In the mid-1930s, the Chicago Great Western Railway and then the New Haven Railroad began piggy-back service (transporting highway freight trailers on flatcars) limited to their own railroads. By 1953, the CBQ, the Chicago and Eastern Illinois and the Southern Pacific railroads had joined the innovation. Most cars were surplus flatcars equipped with new decks. By 1955, an additional 25 railroads had begun some form of piggy-back trailer s ervice. The first vessels purpose-built to carry containers began operation in Denmark in 1951. Ships began carrying containers between Seattle and Alaska in 1951. The worlds first truly intermodal container system used purpose-built container ship the Clifford J. Rodgers built in Montreal in 1955 and owned by the White Pass and Yukon Route. Its first trip carried 600 containers between North Vancouver, British Columbia and Skagway, Alaska on November 26, 1955; in Skagway, the containers were unloaded to purpose-built railroad cars for transport north to the Yukon, in the first intermodal service using trucks, ships and railroad cars. Southbound containers were loaded by shippers in the Yukon, moved by truck, rail, ship and truck to their consignees, without opening. This first intermodal system operated from November 1955 for many years. A converted container used as an office at a building site. The widespread use of ISO standard containers has driven modifications in other freight-moving standards, gradually forcing removable truck bodies or swap bodies into the standard sizes and shapes (though without the strength needed to be stacked), and changing completely the worldwide use of freight pallets that fit into ISO containers or into commercial vehicles. Improved cargo security is also an important benefit of containerization. The cargo is not visible to the casual viewer and thus is less likely to be stolen and the doors of the containers are generally sealed so that tampering is more evident. This has reduced the falling off the truck syndrome that long plagued the shipping industry. Use of the same basic sizes of containers across the globe has lessened the problems caused by incompatible rail gauge sizes in different countries. The majority of the rail networks in the world operate on a 1,435mm (4ft 8 ½in) gauge track known as standard gauge but many countries like Russia, Finland and Spain use broader gauges while other many countries in Africa and South America use narrower gauges on their networks. The use of container trains in all these countries makes trans-shipment between different gauge trains easier, with automatic or semi-automatic equipment. Some of the largest global companies containerizing containers today are Patrick Global Shipping, Bowen Exports and Theiler Sons Goods, LLC. Loss at sea of ISO Containers Containers occasionally fall from the ships that carry them, something that occurs an estimated 2,000 to 10,000 times each year. For instance, on November 30, 2006, a container washed ashore on the Outer Banks of North Carolina, along with thousands of bags of its cargo of tortilla chips. Containers lost at sea do not necessarily sink, but seldom float very high out of the water, making them a shipping hazard that is difficult to detect. Freight from lost containers has provided oceanographers with unexpected opportunities to track global ocean currents. Double-stack containerization A Railroad car with a 20 tank container and a conventional 20 container. Most flatcars cannot carry more than one standard 40 foot container, but if the rail line has been built with sufficient vertical clearance, a well car can accept a container and still leave enough clearance for another container on top. This usually precludes operation of double-stacked wagons on lines with overhead electric wiring (exception: Betuweroute). Double stacking has been used in North America since American President Lines introduced this double stack principle under the name of Stacktrain rail service in 1984. It saved shippers money and now accounts for almost 70 percent of intermodal freight transport shipments in the United States, in part due to the generous vertical clearances used by US railroads ISO Container types Various container types are available for different needs General purpose dry van for boxes, cartons, cases, sacks, bales, pallets, drums in standard, high or half height High cube palletwide containers for europallet compatibility Temperature controlled from -25 °c to +25 °c reefer Open top bulktainers for bulk minerals, heavy machinery Open side for loading oversize pallet Flushfolding flat-rack containers for heavy and bulky semi-finished goods, out of gauge cargo Platform or bolster for barrels and drums, crates, cable drums, out of gauge cargo, machinery, and processed timber Ventilated containers for organic products requiring ventilation Tank containers for bulk liquids and dangerous goods Rolling floor for difficult to handle cargo Determining the best carton, box or pallet While the creation of the best container for shipping of newly created product is called Containerization, the term also applies to determining the right box and the best placement inside that box in order fulfillment. This may be planned by software modules in a warehouse management system. This optimization software calculates the best spatial position of each item withing such constraints as stackability and crush resistance 4. CROSS DOCKING Cross-docking is a practice in logistics of unloading materials from an incoming semi-trailer truck or rail car and loading these materials in outbound trailers or rail cars, with little or no storage in between. This may be done to change type of conveyance, or to sort material intended for different destinations, or to combine material from different origins. Cross docking is used to decrease inventory storage by streamlining the flow between the supplier and the manufacturer. Typical applications Hub and spoke arrangements, where materials are brought in to one central location and then sorted for delivery to a variety of destinations Consolidation arrangements, where a variety of smaller shipments are combined into one larger shipment for economy of transport Deconsolidation arrangements, where large shipments (e.g. railcar lots) are broken down into smaller lots for ease of delivery. Factors influencing the use of cross-docks Customer and supplier geography particularly when a single corporate customer has many multiple branches or using points Freight costs for the commodities being transported Cost of inventory in transit Complexity of loads Handling methods Logistics software integration between supplier(s), vendor, and shipper 5 .DISTRIBUTION Distribution is one of the four aspects of marketing. A distributor is the middleman between the manufacturer and retailer. After a product is manufactured it is typically shipped (and usually sold) to a distributor. The distributor then sells the product to retailers or customers. The other three parts of the marketing mix are product management, pricing, and promotion. Traditionally, distribution has been seen as dealing with logistics: how to get the product or service to the customer. It must answer questions such as: Should the product be sold through a retailer? Should the product be distributed through wholesale? Should multi-level marketing channels be used? How long should the channel be (how many members)? Where should the product or service be available? When should the product or service be available? Should distribution be exclusive, selective or extensive? Who should control the channel (referred to as the channel captain)? Should channel relationships be informal or contractual? Should channel members share advertising (referred to as co-op ads)? Should electronic methods of distribution be used? Are there physical distribution and logistical issues to deal with? What will it cost to keep an inventory of products on store shelves and in channel warehouses (referred to as filling the pipeline)? The distribution channel Channels A number of alternate channels of distribution may be available: Selling direct, such as via mail order, Internet and telephone sales Agent, who typically sells direct on behalf of the producer Distributor (also called wholesaler), who sells to retailers Retailer (also called dealer), who sells to end customers Advertisement typically used for consumption goods Distribution channels may not be restricted to physical products alone. They may be just as important for moving a service from producer to consumer in certain sectors, since both direct and indirect channels may be used. Hotels, for example, may sell their services (typically rooms) directly or through travel agents, tour operators, airlines, tourist boards, centralized reservation systems, etc. There have also been some innovations in the distribution of services. For example, there has been an increase in franchising and in rental services the latter offering anything from televisions through tools. There has also been some evidence of service integration, with services linking together, particularly in the travel and tourism sectors. For example, links now exist between airlines, hotels and car rental services. In addition, there has been a significant increase in retail outlets for the service sector. Outlets such as estate agencies and building society offices are crowding out traditional grocers from major shopping areas.. Channel members Distribution channels can thus have a number of levels. Kotler defined the simplest level, that of direct contact with no intermediaries involved, as the zero-level channel. The next level, the one-level channel, features just one intermediary; in consumer goods a retailer, for industrial goods a distributor, say. In small markets (such as small countries) it is practical to reach the whole market using just one- and zero-level channels. In large markets (such as larger countries) a second level, a wholesaler for example, is now mainly used to extend distribution to the large number of small, neighbourhood retailers In Japan the chain of distribution is often complex and further levels are used, even for the simplest . Channel structure To the various `levels of distribution, which they refer to as the `channel length, Lancaster and Massingham also added another structural element, the relationship between its members: Conventional or free-flow This is the usual, widely recognized, channel with a range of `middle-men passing the goods on to the end-user. Single transaction A temporary `channel may be set up for one transaction; for example, the sale of property or a specific civil engineering project. This does not share many characteristics with other channel transactions, each one being unique. Vertical marketing system (VMS) In this form, the elements of distribution are integrated. The internal market Many of the marketing principles and techniques which are applied to the external customers of an organization can be just as effectively applied to each subsidiarys, or each departments, internal customers. In some parts of certain organizations this may in fact be formalized, as goods are transferred between separate parts of the organization at a `transfer price. To all intents and purposes, with the possible exception of the pricing mechanism itself, this process can and should be viewed as a normal buyer-seller relationship. Less obvious, but just as practical, is the use of `marketing by service and administrative departments; to optimize their contribution to their `customers (the rest of the organization in general, and those parts of it which deal directly with them in particular). In all of this, the lessons of the non-profit organizations, in dealing with their clients, offer a very useful parallel. Channel Decisions Channel strategy Product (or service)CostConsumer location Channel management The channel decision is very important. In theory at least, there is a form of trade-off: the cost of using intermediaries to achieve wider distribution is supposedly lower. Indeed, most consumer goods manufacturers could never justify the cost of selling direct to their consumers, except by mail order. In practice, if the producer is large enough, the use of intermediaries (particularly at the agent and wholesaler level) can sometimes cost more than going direct. Many of the theoretical arguments about channels therefore revolve around cost. On the other hand, most of the practical decisions are concerned with control of the consumer. The small company has no alternative but to use intermediaries, often several layers of them, but large companies do have the choice. However, many suppliers seem to assume that once their product has been sold into the channel, into the beginning of the distribution chain, their job is finished. Yet that distribution chain is merely assuming a part of the suppliers responsibility; and, if he has any aspirations to be market-oriented, his job should really be extended to managing, albeit very indirectly, all the processes involved in that chain, until the product or service arrives with the end-user. This may involve a number of decisions on the part of the supplier: Channel membership Channel motivation Monitoring and managing channels Channel membership Intensive distribution Where the majority of resellers stock the `product (with convenience products, for example, and particularly the brand leaders in consumer goods markets) price competition may be evident. Selective distribution This is the normal pattern (in both consumer and industrial markets) where `suitable resellers stock the product. Exclusive distribution Only specially selected resellers (typically only one per geographical area) are allowed to sell the `product. Channel motivation It is difficult enough to motivate direct employees to provide the necessary sales and service support. Motivating the owners and employees of the independent organizations in a distribution chain requires even greater effort. There are many devices for achieving such motivation. Perhaps the most usual is `bribery: the supplier offers a better margin, to tempt the owners in the channel to push the product rather than its competitors; or a competition is offered to the distributors sales personnel, so that they are tempted to push the product. At the other end of the spectrum is the almost symbiotic relationship that the all too rare supplier in the computer field develops with its agents; where the agents personnel, support as well as sales, are trained to almost the same standard as the suppliers own staff. Monitoring and managing channels In much the same way that the organizations own sales and distribution activities need to be monitored and managed, so will those of the distribution chain. In practice, of course, many organizations use a mix of different channels; in particular, they may complement a direct salesforce, calling on the larger accounts, with agents, covering the smaller customers and prospects. Vertical marketing This relatively recent development integrates the channel with the original supplier producer, wholesalers and retailers working in one unified system. This may arise because one member of the chain owns the other elements (often called `corporate systems integration); a supplier owning its own retail outlets, this being forward integration. It is perhaps more likely that a retailer will own its own suppliers, this being backward integration. (For example, MFI, the furniture retailer, owns Hygena which makes its kitchen and bedroom units.) The integration can also be by franchise (such as that offered by McDonalds hamburgers and Benetton clothes) or simple co-operation (in the way that Marks Spencer co-operates with its suppliers). Alternative approaches are `contractual systems, often led by a wholesale or retail co-operative, and `administered marketing systems where one (dominant) member of the distribution chain uses its position to co-ordinate the other members activities. This has traditionally been the form led by manufacturers. The intention of vertical marketing is to give all those involved (and particularly the supplier at one end, and the retailer at the other) control over the distribution chain. This removes one set of variables from the marketing equations. Other research indicates that vertical integration is a strategy which is best pursued at the mature stage of the market (or product). At earlier stages it can actually reduce profits. It is arguable that it also diverts attention from the real business of the organization. Suppliers rarely excel in retail operations and, in theory, retailers should focus on their sales outlets rather than on manufacturing facilities ( Marks Spencer, for example, very deliberately provides considerable amounts of technical assistance to its suppliers, but does not own them). Horizontal marketing A rather less frequent example of new approaches to channels is where two or more non-competing organizations agree on a joint venture a joint marketing operation because it is beyond the capacity of each individual organization alone. In general, this is less likely to revolve around marketing synergy. LOGISTICS IN FOOD DISTRIBUTION Food distribution, a method of distributing (or transporting) food from one place to another, is a very important factor in public nutrition. Where it breaks down, famine, malnutrition or illness can occur. During some periods of Ancient Rome, food distribution occurred with the policy of giving free bread to its citizens under the provision of a common good. There are three main components of food distribution: Transport infrastructure, such as roads, vehicles, rail transport, airports, and ports. Food handling technology and regulation, such as refrigeration, and storage, warehousing. Adequate source and supply logistics, based on demand and need. Information logistics In general, it is exactly logistics of information. The field of information logistics aims at developing concepts, technologies and applications for need-oriented information supply. Information-on-demand services are a typical application area for information logistics, as they have to fulfil user needs with respect to content, location, time and quality Information Logistics consists of two words information and logistics. Information can mean a lot of things, but usually is text (syntax with a semantic meaning) and logistics which is the transportation of sth from point A to point B. In a simplified sense is a newsletter information logistics, also an e-mail or even the ordinary mail you receive. Information logistics is concerned with the supply of information to individuals and

Revenge and Downfall Essay -- essays research papers

Yasmin Nunez   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Shakespeare’s Hamlet, it is the desire for revenge that lies behind the motives of young Hamlet. His moral struggle towards revenge becomes an obsession leading to a change in character. His actions strongly imply that madness has overcome him. However, there are hints present in the text that implies his madness was feigned in order to achieve his revenge.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Immediately following the appearance of old King Hamlet’s ghost, Hamlet warns Horatio that he may act mad, which foreshadows a change in Hamlet’s character. The reader is prepared that any abnormal acts may be a result from Hamlet’s acting. As the play continues, more questions are raised that involve his sanity.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ophelia, who was the first to witness his madness, offered an insight as she described Hamlet’s actions to her father. Hamlet, who was described as being mad, was speechless and only stared into Ophelia’s eyes. The bizarre actions of Hamlet are presumed to be an act, but the strong visualization of the scene can create doubt in a reader’s mind. If Hamlet was feigning his madness, then why would he want to frighten his girlfriend that he cared for so much?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As more events led to the questioning of Hamlet’s sanity, the reader was given a glimpse into the mind of Hamlet in the famous â€Å"To be or not to be† soliloquy. Hamlet’s questions of life and contemplation of suicide revealed h...

A Comparison and Contrast of Herman Melville’s

Herman Melville’s â€Å"Bartleby, Scrivener† (1853) and Franz Kafka’s â€Å"A Hunger Artist† (1924) are short stories that deal with the complexities of man in the social setting. Melville is most well known for his novel Moby Dick while Kafka was virtually unknown during his lifetime and has no published novels but has since gained recognition for his short stories, including â€Å"Metamorphoses† (1915).It would be interesting to note how a comparison of these two similar stories will reveal the personality of the writer. This paper will provide a brief synopsis of the stories and will then be analyzed for points of comparison and contrast.Synopsesâ€Å"Bartleby, Scrivener†Melville’s tale deals primarily with a particular scrivener, also know as a law-copier or in modern usage a petition writer as set in this story. The scrivener, Bartleby is an unaccountable man as described by the narrator whom at the time of the events that took pl ace a Master in Chancery.Bartleby is at first industrious in scrivener work, although he steadfastly refused to do any other activity and appeared not to eat or do anything but his work, and even seemed to live in the office. The narrator describes his feelings of astonishment, sympathy and subsequent acceptance of this eccentricity because his other employees also had their vagaries.As the story progresses, however, Bartleby’s behavior becomes stranger; he stops working but refuses to leave and eventually drives his employer from his office. Bartleby remains in the building even after being booted out of the room and is eventually arrested for vagrancy. The narrator is conscience-stricken and strives to do all he can for Bartleby, who soon after dies in prison. (Melville, 1994)â€Å"The Hunger Artist†The story begins with a statement of decline in interest in hunger artists. It is told from a third person point of view and sketches a history of the popularity of hunge r artists and the process of the art. It muses upon the intentions of those who subscribe to the spectacle, and the personal views and feelings of one particular artist, dwelling upon his frustration of having his work ended prematurely, a maximum of 40 days per each fasting period, in the interest of profit.The hunger artist knew he could last longer and yearned to find out to what extent, but was not allowed.The story describes how interest in the activity seemed suddenly to cease and rather than pursuing his previous modus operandi, the hunger artist preferred to break away from his manager and hire himself out to the circus, where he was placed in a cage near the menagerie, and was all but forgotten. At last he was able to indulge in his wish. Just before he died, he revealed that he fasted not to make himself famous but because there was no food he enjoyed. (Kafka, 1924)AnalysisThe two stories considered have distinct parallels, most notable the title characters. Both Bartleby and the hunger artist are distinguished by a sense of hopelessness and searching. The characters, the former silently, the other in self-revelation, express their need to find a place to belong.They clearly do not fit in accepted society. Bartleby because of his very ascetism, lack of interpersonal relations and history is almost a ghost, an enigma that even the most kindly of intentions could not draw out. He repulsed any kind of contact, perhaps because he was speculated to have been engaged in activity, that of a dead letter clerk, that dealt with the rejected and discarded. He clearly considered himself beyond salvation.The hunger artist, because of his search for the unattainable, is unable to enjoy the material pleasures of life and live a normal life. He deprived himself of life because he saw no point in continuing with it, reserving the pleasure of knowledge of how far he could take his artistry as his last stand against life.The stories are clearly macabre, elucidating the grimness of life of no purpose and no connection. They deal with the reality that man is essentially a creature of society, and failure of interaction results in strange and appalling consequences.The style of the writing is the most notable contrast of the two stories. Melville deals with the subject in a humorous fashion, drawing a smile, even a laugh with his description of his characters and the circumstances until the very end, which makes the horror of what has become of Bartleby all the more stark.Kafka adopted a gloomy tone from the start, indicating a grim end in the very first sentence of the story. The reader knows the hunger artist is doomed to a life of obscurity at the very least. The twist at the end, when the artist reveals the cause of his compunction for self-destruction, illustrates the writer’s own dissatisfaction with life.

How to Pick Your College Classes

How to Pick Your College Classes The main reason youre in school is to earn your degree. Picking good courses at the right time and in the right order is, therefore, critical to your success. Talk to Your Advisor No matter how big or small your school is, you should have an adviser who helps make sure you are on track to earning your degree. Check in with them, no matter how sure you are about your choices. Not only does your adviser most likely need to sign off on your selections, but he or she can also help alert you to things you may not even have considered. Make Sure Your Schedule Has Balance Dont set yourself up for failure by thinking you can handle more courses than you usually take, all with labs and heavy workloads. Make sure your schedule has some balance: varying levels of difficulty, varying subject matters (when possible) so you arent using one part of your brain 24 hours a day, varying due dates for major projects and exams. Each course may be fine in and of itself, but when combined to create a killer schedule, they all may turn out to be a big mistake. Think About Your Learning Style Do you learn better in the morning? In the afternoon? Do you learn better in a huge classroom, or in a smaller section setting? See what options you can find within a department our course section and pick something that matches best with your learning style. Aim to Pick Strong Professors Do you know you absolutely love a certain professor in your department? If so, see if you can take a course with him or her this semester, or if it would be wiser to wait until a later time. If youve found a professor with whom you intellectually click, taking another class from him or her can help you get to know him or her better and possibly lead to other things, like research opportunities and letters of recommendation. If youre unfamiliar with professors on campus but know that you learn best from a professor who engages a class (instead of one who only lectures), ask around and check online to see what experience other students have had with various professors and their teaching styles. Consider Your Work Schedule and Other Commitments Do you know that you absolutely must have an on-campus job? Do you need an internship for your major? If so, will it require you to work days? Consider taking a class or two that meets in the evenings. Do you know you work best when you can plop yourself down in the library for eight hours straight? Try to avoid taking classes on Friday so that you can use it as a work day. Planning around your known commitments can help reduce your stress level once the semester is moving ahead at full-steam.

Free Essays on Argentine Tango

Argentine Tango Introduction Tango, an explicit dance that started off in Buenos Aires in the late 1800’s has gone through many changes to become one of the most popular style of music and dance in the world today. From a grimy beginning to a prestigious end the Tango has survived the test of time and has become a genre that captivates people even today. History and Importance In the 1800’s dances such as the Contradanza and Minue were very popular social dances performed mainly by people of the middle and high classes. These socially accepted dances were performed standing opposite each other with minimal or no physical contact. The most was the holding of hands at certain points. It was the Viennese Waltz and the Quadrille that first became the popular dances incorporating the intimate touching and close holding of the other dance member. The Polka was the second popular dance which originated in Europe that used the same dancing style as the Viennese Waltz with intimate touching and holding. In today’s time it is common for a couple to dance in close proximity and hold each other tightly. It must be understood that in the second half of the 19th century, this dancing style was considered outrageous and shameful. It was this Polka dancing style that was later taken to Argentina where it was to reach new heights. Around the 1880’s in bars, gambling houses and brothels along Rio de la Plata in Buenos Aires is where the Tango originated. It was the poor local residents of Buenos Aires which included many immigrants from Europe who begun this world-wide phenomenon called the Tango. The poor, drunk, lonely men of Buenos Aires were the first ones that experimented with this new dance from abroad with ill reputed women such as prostitutes. It can be easily argued that in such circumstances any experimentation in terms of the dance steps was very possible and was performed. Perhaps this is why the origin... Free Essays on Argentine Tango Free Essays on Argentine Tango Argentine Tango Introduction Tango, an explicit dance that started off in Buenos Aires in the late 1800’s has gone through many changes to become one of the most popular style of music and dance in the world today. From a grimy beginning to a prestigious end the Tango has survived the test of time and has become a genre that captivates people even today. History and Importance In the 1800’s dances such as the Contradanza and Minue were very popular social dances performed mainly by people of the middle and high classes. These socially accepted dances were performed standing opposite each other with minimal or no physical contact. The most was the holding of hands at certain points. It was the Viennese Waltz and the Quadrille that first became the popular dances incorporating the intimate touching and close holding of the other dance member. The Polka was the second popular dance which originated in Europe that used the same dancing style as the Viennese Waltz with intimate touching and holding. In today’s time it is common for a couple to dance in close proximity and hold each other tightly. It must be understood that in the second half of the 19th century, this dancing style was considered outrageous and shameful. It was this Polka dancing style that was later taken to Argentina where it was to reach new heights. Around the 1880’s in bars, gambling houses and brothels along Rio de la Plata in Buenos Aires is where the Tango originated. It was the poor local residents of Buenos Aires which included many immigrants from Europe who begun this world-wide phenomenon called the Tango. The poor, drunk, lonely men of Buenos Aires were the first ones that experimented with this new dance from abroad with ill reputed women such as prostitutes. It can be easily argued that in such circumstances any experimentation in terms of the dance steps was very possible and was performed. Perhaps this is why the origin...

Taxation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 2

Taxation - Essay Example In such a society, every member has the capacity to identify what is good, and has the right to discuss the concept with others and make necessary changes based on what is considered as the best for the society. Thus, it is clear that Rawlsian liberalism will support some kind of basic structure that is just. In sharp contrast, conservatism as a political philosophy advocates for the retention of the traditional social orders and institutions. Generally, the traditional conservatives oppose modernism and want to return to the traditional systems (Muller 36). A look into the history of Great Britain proves that conservatives like Burke justified aristocracy and the social order in order to preserve tradition, and for such people, community and social harmony were more important than social reforms. Over the years, conservatism took various forms with increased and decreased intensity, like liberal conservatism, conservative liberalism, libertarian conservatism, fiscal conservatism, gr een conservatism, cultural and social conservatism and so on (Muller 3). A look into the history of conservatism in the United States will show that its main characteristics over the years were support for traditional system, anti-communist attitude, demand for low taxes, limited rules and regulations, and a free market. In addition, one can see conservatives do not hesitate to criticize various environmental issues (Schneider, 45). This attitude was clearly exhibited by the stringent opposition to the rising role of government in health care. Thus, one gets an idea that generally, conservatism is against taxation. Liberalism and taxation Liberalism can be described as the political ideology which favors social progress by improvising laws instead of revolution. This social progress will touch all spheres including social, political and economic rights. That means this social philosophy advocates the removal of inequalities in all these spheres. According to Rawls theory of justice, states should possess enough power to take necessary steps to ensure that the poorest in society are as well-off as they can be. Rawls points out in his theory that an unequal distribution of wealth and income is acceptable if those at the bottom of the society are better off than it is possible under any other distribution (Rawls 85). According to liberalism as suggested by Rawls, it is necessary for the members in a society to decide a just social contract. Also, the scholar points out that it is necessary to eliminate the possibility of any morally arbitrary bargaining advantages from influencing the Basic Structure. In order to achieve this end, the scholar points out that all the bargainers in the society need to be kept behind a veil of ignorance (Rawls 113). That means the members are not aware about their natural gifts, social class background, and such other factors. These members would agree to two principles in general; firstly, each person has an equal right to the most extensive liberties, and secondly, social and economic inequalities should be arranged in such a way that the least advantaged gets the greatest benefit (Rawls 143). Thus, the Difference principle as proposed by Rawls is the very basis of the claim that taxation will be welcomed by liberalism. This principle claims that society can initiate such projects which require giving more power to some people in terms of income and status if the initiative meets two criteria. Firstly, it can offer a better life to the worst off by

Solar enrgy Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Solar enrgy - Research Paper Example This paper looks at the alternative sources of energy in general, and focuses on the Solar Energy as one of the most effective, affordable, and cheap alternative source of energy. The paper also looks at the use and development of solar energy in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), especially, by the company called MASDAR, based in the UAE. As we have just seen, alternative source of energy is any energy source that does not use fossil fuel in generating energy (Alternative Energy, Web). There are a number of advantages of using alternative source of energy in comparison to using the fossil fuel source of energy. One of the advantages of using the alternative source of energy is that the alternative source of energy reduces the usage of fossil fuel source of energy and therefore preserves and prevents the fossil fuels from being depleted. With the emergence of many and powerful industries in the modern world, coupled with the increase of the number and usage of vehicles, aeroplanes, and ships, which all depend on fossil based fuels, the fossil fuel source of energy is indeed at the danger of being depleted. ... many alternative sources of energy do not release toxic chemicals to our environment. Fossil based sources of energy are well known for releasing greenhouse gases, Carbon Dioxide gas, in the environment, thus leading to the global warming (Alternative Energy, Web). Global warming threatens to make our world inhabitable and so there is an urgent need to develop alternative sources of energy that do not cause any threat to our very own existence. Many alternative sources of energy therefore help us to get the energy that we need in our various activities without causing any harm to our environment. The third major advantage of using alternative source of energy is that, the alternative source of energy is quite cheap and affordable in comparison to the fossil fuel based sources of energy (Alternative Energy, Web). The cost of the fossil based fuels is increasing each year in many countries around the world that do not produce the fossil fuels. Different governments are using a lot of m oney on fossil fuels as source of energy. Also, many poor people are not able to afford the fossil fuels because of the astronomical costs associated with them. On the other hand, alternative sources of energy like the solar energy and the biogas are quite cheap and affordable to almost everybody. The alternative sources of energy, therefore, are quite cheap and affordable; alternative sources of energy ensure that almost everybody has access to power. The alternative sources of energy therefore spurs economic growth of a country through making cheap power available to all people, including the poor people. Having looked at the main advantages of alternative sources of energy, let us now look at some of the common alternative sources of